Context and Background for the Warrior Women Ballads
By Robert Chapman-Morales
This compilation of conflicts and wars that England was involved in during the 17th and 18th centuries is meant to allow users a general understanding not only of the conflicts that are alluded to in the ballads, but also to understand the mindset of the ballads’ intended audience. Life during these centuries revolved around uncertainty, the subjugation of foreigners for the purposes of imperialization, and a rise in the need for soldiers and sailors to fight these increasingly violent and disparate conflicts. For a more expansive list of conflicts and wars that England has been involved in, see the Wikipedia article, “List of Wars Involving England,” from which the information in this resource can be found.
Introduction
This compilation of conflicts and wars that England was involved in during the 17th and 18th centuries is meant to allow users a general understanding not only of the conflicts that are alluded to in the ballads, but also to understand the mindset of the ballads’ intended audience. Life during these centuries revolved around uncertainty, the subjugation of foreigners for the purposes of imperialization, and a rise in the need for soldiers and sailors to fight these increasingly violent and disparate conflicts. The following tables and information are a selective and condensed version of the Wikipedia site “List of Wars Involving England” that contains a full list of the wars and conflicts that England has been involved in.
This compilation is divided into two sections: the 17th Century and the 18th Century (the centuries of the Warrior Women Ballads). Each section of this resource has a link to the respective century on the Wikipedia site “List of Wars Involving England” from which the information provided is drawn from. All dates listed and information provided comes from the Wikipedia site, but for each section, the information has been condensed and focused to only those conflicts, and other information, that is directly applicable to the Warrior Women Battles. As such, this resource can be used while reading the ballads to quickly find information from these centuries that is applicable to the ballads. Each table shows the major conflicts for England and the important Allies and Enemies for England during that conflict. This table also includes an Outcomes section that is meant to show the important results of the battle and possible connections to themes seen in the ballads. After the tables, there is a section that briefly synthesizes the importance of these battles to an understanding of the Warrior Women Ballads produced during this time period. This section is drawn in part from the Wikipedia site, while also containing an analysis of the information on the Wikipedia site and how it relates to the context of the Warrior Women Ballads.
Both centuries continue to show the hostility between England and France and Spain. Conflicts between these nations occurred since before the middle ages as each country attempted to establish dominance over the other. Going into the 17th Century, Spain had the upper hand in its efforts to create an empire (“Spanish Empire“), but depending on the goal for any given conflict, these nations would become allies or enemies accordingly as can be seen in the following tables. The ultimate goal for each country was expansion through whatever means necessary.
The following tables are a highly simplified version of history drawn from the Wikipedia site “List of Wars Involving England” focusing on how naval life and Empire building became a normal way of life during the time of the ballads. The focus has also been to highlight events that are of primary importance for understanding the setting of the ballads. Furthermore, the constant desire to expand the growing English Empire led to a need to recruit sailors and soldiers. There was a level of desperation, especially as the wars financially drained England (for one such example, see “Peace of Ryswick“). This made it possible for the female to male crossdressing seen the ballads to be a very realistic possibility and the ballads explore the potential presented to citizens during these centuries of uncertainty and imperialization that left countries vulnerable at home.
17th Century (1601-1700) Major Conflicts for England
A more expansive list of conflicts in this century can be found at “List of Wars Involving England”
| Name of Notable Conflicts | Start | End | Notable Allies | Notable Enemies | Important Outcomes |
| Dutch-Portuguese War | 1602 | 1661* | Dutch Republic |
Kingdom of Portugal
|
Treaty of Hague (recognition of Portuguese imperial sovereignty of New Holland (Dutch Brazil))
Formation of the Dutch Empire Led to Portuguese Restoration War in 1640 |
| Anglo-Spanish War | 1625 | 1630 | None | Spain |
This war ends because of the impending war with France (Peace Treaty between Spain and England)
England is bankrupt after this war and cannot support the Dutch Republic (Formed during the Eighty Years War in which the Dutch established a republic (no longer under sovereignty of Hapsburgs (Austrian ruling family)) |
| Anglo-French War | 1627 | 1629 | None | France |
England loses to France
Leads to Treaty of Suza (mainly allowing France and England to maintain control over certain territories gained during this war). Ratified by Charles I (later executed during the English Civil War) Early alliance between England and Scotland – eventually becomes a formal alliance as part of the kingdom of Great Britain in the next century |
| Portuguese Restoration War | 1640 | 1668** |
Kingdom of Portugal
France | Spain |
Treaty of Lisbon
Charles II (after monarchy is restored in England after the English Civil War) recognizes the sovereignty of Portugal’s royal house to control Portugal and its colonial possessions |
| Irish Confederate Wars | 1641 | 1653 | Parliamentarians (denied Divine Rights of Kings to rule with absolute power. Instead wished for Parliament to have control over England’s administrative tasks.) |
Irish Catholic Confederation
(Irish Catholic nobles, clergy, and military leaders in favor of King Charles I. Recognized the King’s absolute power)
English and Scottish Royalists (For the Monarchy and the Absolute Power of Kings through the Divine Right of Kings) |
English Parliamentarians defeat the Royalists and conquer Ireland. They take away Irish Catholic power in Ireland.
Occurred simultaneously with the English Civil War and the outcome is tied to the outcome of that war. |
| English Civil War | 1642 | 1651*** | Parliamentarians | Royalists |
Parliamentarian victory
Execution of Charles I (ends the Monarchy) in 1649 Exile of Charles I’s son, Charles II Republican Commonwealth established under Oliver Cromwell (England’s temporary leader until the Restoration of the Monarchy and the Crowning of Charles II in 1660) Cromwell brutally subjugated the Irish during his time in power |
| First Anglo-Dutch War | 1652 | 1654 | Commonwealth of England (1649-1660) | Dutch Republic |
Victory over the Dutch by England’s new Commonwealth
Established domination of the seas and rise of England’s naval power Treaty of Westminster (1654) (to create peace between England and Dutch Republic. Also, one of the first treaties to implement the concept of “international arbitration” as a means of conflict resolution in the early modern period) |
| Second Anglo-Dutch War | 1665 | 1667 | Commonwealth of England (1649-1660) |
Dutch Republic
France |
Treaty of Breda (eased tensions that had resulted from increased commerce. The beginnings of these Empires caused concerns over trade. The sea became an important feature in these rising economies)
|
| Third Anglo-Dutch War | 1672 | 1674 |
England (No longer the Commonwealth. Now restored to a Monarchy)
France | Dutch Republic | Treaty of Westminster (1674) (Different from previous Treaty of Westminster. Allowed England more means for commerce in the East Indies (an important allowance that made it possible for England to continue expanding its commerce – necessary with the cost of all these wars.) This war ended because of lack of money and lack of confidence from the English public after the English navy struggled against the Dutch navy (previously it had seemed that England had a dominant navy) |
| Franco-Dutch War | 1672 | 1678**** | France |
Dutch Republic
Holy Roman Empire Spain | Treaty of Westminster (1674) (See Above) |
| Nine Years’ War | 1688 | 1697 |
Grand Alliance between:
England Dutch Republic Holy Roman Empire Spanish Empire | France |
Treaty of Ryswick
(Important in providing peace as this war crippled the economies of these participants)
France Recognizes William III of Orange as King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (what will eventually become the Kingdom of Great Britain in the next century) |
Editorial Notes
*Dutch-Portuguese War was ongoing through most of this century, but England was mostly involved until 1641
**This conflict begins before the English Civil War that ended the Monarchy (the execution of Charles I) and ends after the Monarchy is restored (the crowning of Charles II after exile)
***English Civil War occurred simultaneously with England’s quest for colonial conquest of other countries. Shows the difficulty of expansion while also maintaining peace at home.
****More or less the same war for England as the Third Anglo-Dutch War. The outcome mainly differed for the other countries involved.
Importance to the Warrior Women Ballads (17th Century)
This century was one of tumultuous change for England as it sought to establish itself as a viable Empire. Overall, this century was one in which prominent nations sought to establish themselves as an empire by expanding the territories they held for strategic purposes. The rise in commerce during this period meant a need for prominence as a naval power in order to control the seas (the trade routes for commerce during this time). Empires and the rise in naval powers became a normal way of life by the next century.
The 17th century also saw the rise in the armies of empires, which further shows the reason that enlisting for war is such a common theme during the 17th Century ballads. Armies usually were around 25,000 but as a result of these constant wars, the standard army rose to over 100,000 by the end of the century (to learn more about this statistic, see “Peace of Ryswick“). This was unsustainable in these economies because industrialization had not happened in which mass production of war materials would become possible (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Ryswick#Background).
It is also important to note that the naval power of Spain was unmatched during this century. Spain had control of New World (America) (for more about Spain’s imperial power, see “Spanish Empire“) – the setting of some of the Warrior Women Ballads when England eventually became more powerful than Spain and expanded there during the next century. The Spanish Empire reached its peak in the 18th Century and was surpassed by England at that time (“Spanish Empire“).
Overall, this constant state of war for England and the uncertainty involving their home country led many citizens to have lives of uncertainty. This uncertainty in England made it impossible for the King and government to enforce laws against counterfeiting, so it was a ripe time for disguise and adventure. It also was a time in which propaganda was necessary in order to enlist soldiers for wars that were so costly that the government could not guarantee payment for sailors and instead relied on their sense of national pride. The class system became more apparent during this period as poverty forced many to enlist and put themselves in danger. Yet, even for the nobility the 17th century was a time of uncertainty. It thus makes sense that the ballads during this period were concerned with life on the sea, but also the uncertainty of existence.
18th Century (1701-1800) Major Conflicts for England
A more expansive list of conflicts in this century can be found in the Wikipedia article, “List of Wars Involving England in the 18th Century”
| Name of Conflict | Start | End | Notable Allies | Notable Enemies | Important Outcomes |
| War of the Spanish Succession (only major conflict for England/Great Britain in the 18th Century) | 1701 | 1714 | Austrian Monarchy Dutch Republic Holy Roman Empire Prussia Hapsburg Spain | France Spanish Monarchy | In 1707 England became the Kingdom of Great Britain France recognizes British Sovereignty as the British Empires expands |
Importance to the Warrior Women Ballads (18th Century)
Most importantly, during this major conflict of the 18th century, England underwent the change from the country of England to become the kingdom of Great Britain (England in alliance with Scotland) that remained a kingdom until 1801 and thus through the entire 18th Century (“Kingdom of Great Britain“). As a result, the ballads during this century had a backdrop of initial uncertainty from 1701 and the beginning of the conflict until 1707 when the kingdom of Great Britain was established. Then, the end of this outcome in 1714 solidified Britain’s status as a burgeoning empire (“Kingdom of Great Britain“). Thus, ballads in this century typically have a tone of propaganda and national pride and a desire to continue this mission of expansion of the kingdom. Yet, there are also undertones of skepticism and resistance to this mission. There also are more of a distinguishing of “us vs. them” as any foreigners (mainly outside England) were viewed as inferior and without this “grand vision” of empire and domination. Ballads of these periods contain many racialized depictions that indicate the racism of this empire. This period also may contain more ballads with language that mimics the Scottish dialect as this close interaction with Scotland became even more of a normal mode of life as the Empire expanded.